Rabu, 21 Oktober 2009

Stone sculpture

Stone sculpture is the result of forming 3-dimensional visually interesting objects from stone.

Carving stone into sculpture is an activity older than civilization itself. Prehistoric sculptures were usually human forms, such as the Venus of Willendorf and the faceless statues of the Cycladic cultures of ancient Greece. Later cultures devised animal, human-animal and abstract forms in stone. The earliest cultures used abrasive techniques, and modern technology employs pneumatic hammers and other devices. But for most of human history, sculptors used hammer and chisel as the basic tools for carving stone.

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he process of stone sculpture

The work begins with the selection of a stone for carving. The artist may carve in the direct way, by carving without a model, creating a form or figure from scratch, with only the idea in his mind as a guideline, sketching on the block of stone and developing the work along the way. This method can be inspiring but can also present major problems when too much stone is removed in previous stages.

Or the sculptor may begin with a clearly defined model to be copied in stone. Frequently the sculptor would begin by forming a model in clay or wax, and then copying this in stone by measuring with calipers or a pointing machine. This method leaves much less chance for error, so the desired result can be achieved as expected. This method is also used when the carving is done by other sculptors, such as artisans or employees of the sculptor.

Some artists use the stone itself as inspiration; the Renaissance artist Michelangelo claimed that his job was to free the human form trapped inside the block.

Roughing out

different mallets and pitching tool

When he or she is ready to carve, the carver usually begins by knocking off, or "pitching", large portions of unwanted stone. For this task he may select a point chisel, which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end and a broad striking surface at the other. A pitching tool may also be used at this early stage; which is a wedge-shaped chisel with a broad, flat edge. The pitching tool is useful for splitting the stone and removing large, unwanted chunks. The sculptor also selects a mallet, which is often a hammer with a broad, barrel-shaped head.



Roughed out carvings

The carver places the point of the chisel or the edge of the pitching tool against a selected part of the stone, then swings the mallet at it with a controlled stroke. He must be careful to strike the end of the tool accurately; the smallest miscalculation can damage the stone, not to mention the sculptor’s hand. When the mallet connects to the tool, energy is transferred along the tool, shattering the stone. Most sculptors work rhythmically, turning the tool with each blow so that the stone is removed quickly and evenly. This is the “roughing out” stage of the sculpting process.

Refining

Once the general shape of the statue has been determined, the sculptor uses other tools to refine the figure. A toothed chisel or claw chisel has multiple gouging surfaces which create parallel lines in the stone. These tools are generally used to add texture to the figure. An artist might mark out specific lines by using calipers to measure an area of stone to be addressed, and marking the removal area with pencil, charcoal or chalk. The stone carver generally uses a shallower stroke at this point in the process. .

Final stages

Eventually the sculptor has changed the stone from a rough block into the general shape of the finished statue. Tools called rasps and rifflers are then used to enhance the shape into its final form. A rasp is a flat, steel tool with a coarse surface. The sculptor uses broad, sweeping strokes to remove excess stone as small chips or dust. A riffler is a smaller variation of the rasp, which can be used to create details such as folds of clothing or locks of hair.

The final stage of the carving process is polishing. Sandpaper can be used as a first step in the polishing process, or sand cloth. Emery, a stone that is harder and rougher than the sculpture media, is also used in the finishing process. This abrading, or wearing away, brings out the color of the stone, reveals patterns in the surface and adds a sheen. Tin and iron oxides are often used to give the stone a highly reflective exterior.

Rough and unfinished statues

Rough block forms of unfinished statuary are known, and are in museums. Notable are the Akhenaten, Amarna Period statuary found at Akhetaten. One known sculptor, Thutmose (sculptor), has his entire shop excavated at Akhetaten, with many unfinished block forms.

Other stone sculpture

Asthall Manor has a biennial exhibition on form; a showcase for sculpture in stone. Stephen Kettle is notable as a sculptor who creates stone statues by stacking stone fragments.

India's Sculpture

Sculptures of the Indus Valley

The story of Indian art and sculpture dates back to the Indus valley civilization of the 2nd and 3rd millennium BC. Tiny terra-cotta seals discovered from the valley reveal carvings of peepal leaves, deities and animals. These elemental shapes of stones or seals were enshrined and worshipped by the people of the civilization. Two other objects that were excavated from the ruins of the Indus valley indicate the level of achievement that Indian art had attained in those days. The bust of a priest in limestone and a bronze dancing girl show tremendous sophistication and artistry.


Buddhist Sculptures - Sarnath and Sanchi, Gandhara and Mathura

The next golden chapter of Indian sculpture opens in the 3rd century BC, when the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka adopted Buddhism and set out on a mission to spread the teachings of the faith as far and wide as possible. He had 85,000 stupas or dome-shaped monuments constructed with the teachings of Buddhism engraved on rocks and pillars. These inscriptions which served as edicts can be seen in Buddhist monuments in Gujarat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The famous Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath in Madhya Pradesh gleams in polished sandstone representing the hieratic art under the Mauryan Empire. The lion capital of the pillar is now the official emblem of the Indian Republic and the sacred wheel of law or the dharmachakra is symbolic of the first sermon that Buddha delivered at Sarnath.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is perhaps the finest surviving relic of the Mauryan Empire and is a renowned Buddhist monument. Its finely carved gateways depict Buddhist legends and lifestyles of two thousand years ago. The foundation of the Stupa was laid by Ashoka and he set up monasteries here as a retreat for the Buddhist monks. The Great Stupa is fifty-four feet high and is surrounded by a stone railing and four elaborately carved gateways on each side. The gateway reliefs depict tales of Buddha's incarnations, his life as a prince, his moment of enlightenment, his sermons and his worshippers. This site at Sanchi also includes remains of smaller stupas, pillars and monasteries.

In the 1st century AD, the position changed somewhat radically in art and sculpture. The human figure replaced the symbolic representation of Buddha and his teachings. Though Buddha opposed the idea of idol worship, his cult image was established and became essential for acts of worship. The Mathura and the Gandhara schools of sculpture imparted human form to Buddha's image. To emphasize his divinity, this human form was depicted with features like a halo around the head, the dharmachakra engraved upon his palms and soles of his feet, and the lion throne representing his royal ancestry. These early stone images of Buddha are awe-inspiring in terms of size and magnificence.

The Buddha statues of the 5th century exhibit a unique sensibility with human figures that are meditative and serene, a body that is subtly modeled and a face that glows with enlightenment. Here, the ultimate definition of the divine is indicated in the soft folds of the dress, the exquisite curvature of the hands and the half-closed eyes of the Buddha.


Hindu Art

The 4th, 5th and 6th centuries AD witnessed a tremendous resurgence of Hinduism when it became the official religion of the Gupta Empire. Consequently, this era was also marked by the emergence of innumerable images of popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, the Sun-God and goddess Durga evolved in this period. The Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house a colossal image of Vishnu. Here he is presented as the great savior who rescued 'mother earth' from the depths of the ocean, in his incarnation as a varha (boar). Other statues of this period found in various temples and museums are indicative of the various dimensions of early Hindu art and sculpture.

The link between dance, drama, literature and art became crucial to aesthetic expressionism in centuries to come. This new era in art and sculpture witnessed a unique fusion, a synthesis embodied in the caves at Ajanta and Ellora and the temples of central and South India.


Ajanta and Ellora

North-east of Bombay, near Aurangabad are two astonishing series of temples carved out of living rock over the course of fourteen centuries. During the 4th century AD. in a remote valley, work began on the Ajanta caves to create a complex of Buddhist monasteries and prayer halls. As centuries passed, numerous Buddhist monks and artisans excavated a set of twenty-nine caves, some cells, monasteries and Buddhist temples. All of these were carved from the rock cliff at Ajanta. These caves are adorned with elaborate sculptures and paintings which have withstood the ravages of time.

The sculptures are finely wrought images of animals, guards and deities while the paintings tell ancient tales of courtly life and depict hundreds of Buddhist legends. Amid the beautiful images and paintings are sculptures of Buddha, calm and serene in contemplation.

Work started on the Ellora caves in the seventh century AD where another set of caves were created from living rock. Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism inspired these sculptors to create these elaborate rock carvings. The Buddhist and Jain caves here are ornately carved yet seem quiet and meditative whereas the Hindu caves are filled with a divine energy and power.

The most impressive and majestic creation at Ellora is the Kailasa Temple, a full-sized freestanding temple flanked by elephants carved out of solid rock. Pillars, podiums, spires and towers combine to produce an awe-inspiring representation of Shiva's Himalayan abode.


Khajuraho

The tranquil town of Khajuraho, in the central state of Madhya Pradesh boasts of the best medieval temples in India, known all over the world for their erotic sculptures. These glorious temples are the state's most famous attraction.

Amid green lawns and brilliant pink flowers is a complex of temples, glowing with the warmth of sandstone and ornamented with the sinuous curves of sculpture unparalleled in their beauty. Out of the 85 temples built originally, only 22 survive today. These temples were created by the Chandela rulers in the Indo-Aryan style. The site was forgotten for centuries before it was rediscovered in 1838. The temples were restored and attract visitors from all over the world.

The sculptures include statues of gods and goddesses, warriors, celestial dancers and animals, besides those of couples in erotic poses. The Hindu philosophy of Yoga and Bhoga (physical pleasure), the two paths leading to final liberation, seem to be the underlying theme of these sculptures. These temples celebrated a Hindu faith exuberant in its love for the divine. All life was seen as an expression of divinity, including human love. The union between man and woman was viewed as the culmination of devotion, symbolic of the union of the devotee with god and divinity. The other sculptures in these temples depict the daily lives of the people in the 10th and 11th centuries AD.

The famous temples at Khajuraho include the Lakshmana Temple and the Kandariya Mahadeva temple. The latter is dedicated to Lord Shiva and has a shikhara or spire that is 38 meters high. Here we see an attempt to reconstruct the image of Shiva's home in Mount Kailasha. Giant reliefs also portray various manifestations of Shiva, who is both a destroyer and a savior. Of the many statues found in this temple, the most fascinating is that of an ascetic performing the shirshasan (a yogic posture where the yogi balances himself on his head).

The temples of Khajuraho display a wealth of sculptural beauty, evoking the grandeur of the snow-capped Himalayas as well as the earthly pleasures of life.


Elephanta Caves

The most profound aspect of the mighty Shiva is in evidence at the Shiva temple in the Elephanta caves. Situated near Bombay, these caves present an introduction to some most exquisitely carved temples. One can witness a symphony in stone in praise of Lord Shiva, created by India's expert stone carvers of the sixth century.

The central attraction here is a twenty-foot high bust of the deity in three-headed form. The Maheshamurti is built deep into a recess and looms up from the darkness to fill the full height of the cave. This image symbolizes the fierce, feminine and meditative aspects of the great ascetic and the three heads represent Shiva as Aghori, Ardhanarishvara and Mahayogi. Aghori is the terrible form of Shiva where he is intent on destruction. Ardhanarishvara depicts Shiva as half-man/half-woman signifying the essential unity of the sexes. The Mahayogi posture symbolizes the meditative aspect of the God and here Shiva is shown in his most quiet and serene form. Other sculptures in these caves depict Shiva's cosmic dance of primordial creation and destruction and his marriage to Parvati and Shiva as half man/half-woman . The Elephanta sculptures meaningfully convey the oneness of the human and the divine and the images transcend the scope of human imagination to achieve a grandeur that remains undiminished by time.

Article: Netsuke: unique Japanese miniature sculpture.

Netsuke is a small, sculptural art that communicated social values as part of a custom in Japanese society during the early days, especially in the Edo era. Cause and effect are apparent in this history lesson, as there was a change in history due to the influence of Western culture, which resulted in a change the purpose of netsuke. Netsuke became an important part of the historical record of Japanese society and is still considered a unique art form today.

With background knowledge the function and aesthetics of netsuke, and an understanding of the historical context of this time period, fifth- and sixth-grade students modeled their own netsuke from clay.

Sculptor Holds a Mirror Up to His Mexico

By LORENZA MUNOZ, TIMES STAFF WRITER|May 20, 2000

Mexican sculptor Marcos Ramirez has never been afraid to confront shameful little secrets or reveal hypocrisy. Take his 1997 sculpture of a 33-foot, two-headed Trojan horse on the border of San Ysidro and Tijuana, which seemed to ask the question: "Who is invading whom?" Or his statement on the U.S.' immigration policies through a unique tribute to Jasper Johns' American flag series--reimagining the Stars and Stripes as a corrugated metal fence on the border.

Ramirez is one artist who lives and breathes the political.

"I want my work to be universally visual," he said on a recent visit to Los Angeles from his home in Tijuana. "I may speak of local issues, but they are universal issues. I am not a border artist. The work I make has to do with cultural frontiers."

And now it is time to turn his satirical, incisive eye to his homeland. The 35-year-old artist's stinging critique of Mexico and its countrymen is on display in "Oro por Espejos" (Gold for Mirrors), which opened Friday at the Iturralde Gallery. The exhibition, which features three massive carved wooden sculptures, one large iron cross, some paintings and installations, inaugurates the gallery's new, larger space.

Ramirez tried to address the three eras of Mexican culture that continue to cause a tremendous national identity crisis: the pre-Columbian, the Colonial and the contemporary.

"I had to have the guts to make a critique of my own country," said Ramirez, who also goes by "Erre"--the Spanish pronunciation of the letter R. "The essence of this exhibit is recovering the pride of who we were and then dealing with the Spanish past. It's like a cathartic thing. We shouldn't forget our past, but we need to get rid of our complexes and hang-ups so Mexico can be a better country."

Ramirez is a child of the border, raised in a bicultural world where he visited Los Angeles more often than his own country's capital city. His parents moved from Guadalajara to the border with hopes of crossing into the United States. They eventually did, but when Ramirez's mother was about to give birth, they returned so he could be born a Mexican national.

It was a frontier existence he led, with half of his family in the U.S. and his siblings and parents in Mexico.

His journey to becoming an artist is also a peculiarly Mexican border tale. When he graduated from college with a law degree in the early '80s, Mexico's economy suffered one of the most calamitous peso devaluations in history. It threw the country into economic turmoil.

Ramirez could not find a job. So he came across the border illegally. He slept in his car and eventually found work as a construction worker. Within a few years, he became a legal resident and started a construction business. Although he never studied art, Ramirez showed a creative side, always sketching and drawing from the time he was a child. Even when he went into construction, he would plan ways of creating art with the skills he learned as a carpenter and laborer. With his proceeds, he would purchase materials to make art.

Virtually unknown, Ramirez was invited to create a piece for "inSITE94," the big binational show that features installation art in Tijuana and San Diego. His work, "Century 21," was a one-room shanty placed on the plaza of Tijuana's Centro Cultural. In his review of the show, Times art critic Christopher Knight said it was art "of a particularly devastating sort. . . . Ramirez has counterposed the grand plaza of an officially sanctioned centro cultural with a stark example of the actual cultural center of the city's teeming life."

It turned out to be one of the most critically well-received pieces of the show. Based on this success, Ramirez was invited back for "inSITE97," co-organized by Mexico's influential National Council for Culture and the Arts.

One day, while waiting in line at the hellacious border crossing, Ramirez was thunderstruck by an idea: What if he built an enormous sculpture here? What if everyone who drove back and forth, waiting hours in that line under the hot, dusty sun, could be prompted to think about the foolishness of these man-made borders?

So, he built his now-famous Trojan horse for "inSITE97." It is estimated that nearly 13 million people saw his work of art as they drove across the country lines. The horse seemed to say that the invasion is a two-way street.

"They invade us with imperialism and commercialism," he said. "We invade them, like Carlos Fuentes said, chromosomally, with people. We make them eat tacos instead of hamburgers."

This year, Ramirez was selected for the Whitney Biennial, only one of three Mexican natives ever chosen for the exhibition. For the show, Ramirez made "Stripes and Fence Forever--Homage to Jasper Johns," a tribute to Johns' iconographic renderings of the American flag. He painted a corrugated metal wall as the flag, chemically treating it to resemble a worn-out fence. The fence sits on a 9-foot-square area of soil, dividing the dirt into two sides. One side is held in by a series of bricks, all uneven and handmade. The other side is held in by perfectly cut-out cinder blocks.

"It's the same dirt," he said. "But the brick is the Mexican part, it's imperfect artisanry. The U.S. is the cinder block; everything has to be perfect, made the exact size. It's like an artificial fence. It's a border that 150 years ago was not there. Who knows if it will be there 150 years from now."

With the "Oro por Espejos" exhibit, his art will leave the border and delve deep into the heart of Mexico. It will be his first exhibit tackling the contradictions and problems of his native land.

Mexicans, he declares, are the children of a rape. The trauma of the Spanish conquest is still fresh, despite that it happened almost 500 years ago. So, his work is an exploration of that bizarre fusion of races that occurred when Hernan Cortes' soldiers landed in Mexico and mixed with the Indians to create the mestizo. When the Aztec emperor Moctezuma saw Cortes, he mistakenly believed him to be the incarnation of the Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl. In his folly, Moctezuma received the Spaniard and his men with gold, women, fine cloth and feathers. The Spaniards gave mirrors to the Indians, hence the name of the exhibit.

The exhibition features four major pieces. The first is called "Presidential Bed." The king-size bed frame depicts the pre-Columbian, Colonial and contemporary eras and is carved out of fine Mexican mahogany, with baroque yet indigenous touches that betray the curious blend of the European with the Indian--something also evident in some of Mexico's most important cathedrals. The bed is installed in a large room, hinting at the largess of the Mexican presidency.

"A president--especially a Mexican president--cannot have a small room or bed, particularly because Mexicans have had these pretensions of being French," said the artist, referring to the French influence on Mexico's upper classes when they invaded the country in the 19th century.

The headboard is emblazoned with the national insignia of an eagle devouring a snake--a symbol of freedom over the treacherous serpent. But Ramirez's twist has the snake biting the eagle. The bed is surrounded by 700 pounds of corn kernels--symbol for the Aztecs' holy food. Instead of a mattress, the bed is lined with 2,000 nails, arranged in varying heights to form a topographical map of the Mexican republic. Ramirez said he was eager to finish the bed in time for the Mexican presidential elections in July.

"The president that inherits this country will sleep in a bed which is not very comfortable to lie in," he said. "It will be very hard to rest."

Ramirez's "Presidential Chair" takes an even harsher look at what has been called an imperial presidency. The massive chair, also of mahogany, is carved in a similar baroque style. But instead of a bench, there is a toilet seat--that chair is the place where so many Mexican presidents have sat and soiled the country, he said. On the floor, Ramirez has tossed hundreds of worthless coins, a fool's-gold metaphor for the Mexican peso, useless after so many devaluations.

Alongside the chair, Ramirez has placed a chest called "Moctezuma's Treasure Chest." It is simply carved, made of Chechan wood found in the state of Chiapas. The simplicity makes it look like a packing crate. It is empty inside.

"The real treasure is the wood that it's made from," said Ramirez. "The real treasures are Mexico's natural resources."

Ramirez also takes on the Catholic Church with his 13-foot-tall iron cross. On the bottom of the cross, inside the thick wire, he has carved out Indian-like faces as if they were pushing to get out of a cage. They are imprisoned by the cross.

The exhibit includes a multimedia display that Ramirez made as a tribute to his mother, a poet who died in 1994. In another room he has hung wooden carved letters coated in gold leaf to spell out the following phrase: Oro por espejos.

En los ojos del Mexico, Que aun no aprende a mirarse a si mismo.

On the opposite wall, Ramirez has hung dozens of mirrors, which reflect the gold letters, along with a printed translation: "Gold for mirrors. In the eyes of Mexico, that has yet to learn how to see itself."

Ramirez hopes his work will inspire curiosity and introspection among Mexicans, but also among those who are not familiar with the country and its problems. Parts of the exhibition will be included in a larger show at the Museo de la Ciudad in Mexico City, beginning in August.

"It's time for us to look at ourselves in the mirror," said Ramirez. "We need to figure out what we are good at and then move forward."

* "Oro por Espejos" continues through June 24 at the Iturralde Gallery, 116 N. La Brea Ave. Tuesday-Friday, 10 a.m.-5 p.m.; Saturday, 11 a.m.-5 p.m.; and by appointment.